Joyce
A. Smith
Norma Pitts
Choice of diapers, cloth or disposable, impacts on environmental,
health and economic concerns. Currently, neither diaper type
is clearly superior in all areas. An understanding of the
issues provides some basis for responsible choice.
Introduced in 1961, disposable diapers now dominate the market,
accounting for 80 percent of the diapers used in the United
States. Convenience is the major reason given by parents,
particularly in dual-career families where time for cloth
diaper care is limited. Group day care restrictions requiring
single use diapers by registrants also influence choice of
diapering method. Families without access to home laundry
equipment find care of cloth diapers burdensome.
Associated with the convenience and market penetration of
single use diapers is waste disposal. The average child uses
over 5,000 diapers during the 30 month period before toilet
training, contributing to a total of over 16 billion diapers
or 2.7 million tons of single use diapers requiring disposal
each year (1). Disposable diapers account for an estimated
1.5 to 2.0 percent of municipal solid waste, contributing
to the existing problem of landfill availability and escalating
cost of solid waste management (1,2).
Environment
Disposable Diapers
With
landfills reaching capacity and dumping costs expected to
quadruple by the year 2000, solutions for disposal of all
solid waste, including disposable diapers, is a critical concern.
Nearly $300 million is spent annually to discard single use
diapers. Disposable diapers generate four times as much solid
waste as cloth diapers. An archaeological study of garbage
from 1977 to 1985 determined that while fast food packaging
accounted for 0.1 percent by weight of solid waste in landfills,
disposable diapers accounted for slightly under 1.0 percent
or nine to ten times that amount (3). However, some additional
concerns regarding the decomposition of disposable diapers
and resulting by-products must be considered.
Disposable diapers are made from wood (cellulose based inside
unit), chemicals (absorbent gel), and oil-based (polypropylene
water-proof layer) materials. Some estimates suggest that
82,000 tons of plastic and 1.8 million tons of wood pulp (1/4
million trees) are consumed each year in the production of
disposable diapers (4). However, wood pulp used in disposable
diapers comes from tree farms operating for this purpose rather
than forests or woodlands.
Use of disposable diapers consumes more raw materials for
production and generates more solid waste after use than cloth
diapers (5). Questions concerning the completeness of decomposition
of both sections of the chemical plastic units in diapers
exist. Some estimates suggest that decomposition of numerous
solid waste materials takes longer than expected particularly
with air and water (necessary for breakdown) often absent
in landfills.
Another potential problem could be leachate, primarily from
older landfills, entering ground water supplies. Viruses excreted
in human feces could pose health problems long term. To date,
no evidence of health care related waste (including diapers)
causing disease in community water systems has been determined
(6), nor have waste collection workers experienced increased
occupational related viral infections (7). Biodegradable diapers
are one option for parents. They are made from a cornstarch
base and, when acted on by bacteria, more rapidly decompose
than conventional disposable diapers. The process requires
oxygen and water, however, often lacking in landfill operations.
Biodegradable diapers may have more potential for composting
uses than to address landfill concerns. Nevertheless, neither
the quantity of solid waste contributed by diapers nor the
potential spread of infection are eliminated with the biodegradable
product.
Cloth
Diapers
Although
disposable diapers pose environmental concerns from a solid
waste perspective, cloth diapers raise concerns regarding
air and water pollution. The reusable nature of cloth diapers
reduces the solid waste problem, but creates other environmental
concerns. Laundering of cloth diapers requires water, energy
to heat the water and operate equipment, and chemicals in
the form of laundry and sanitizing products that contribute
to water pollution and additionally tax municipal water treatment
systems.
A 1990 study concluded that cloth diapers used twice as much
energy and four times as much water as disposables, and created
greater air and water pollution than disposables (8). Commercial
diaper services pose similar concerns, plus additional fuel
use and air pollution created by delivery trucks. Emissions
from home and diaper service drying equipment contribute to
air pollution. While disposable diapers use more raw materials
in the manufacturing process, cloth diapers use greater resources
after use or care. Use of disposables raises a concern about
solid waste management, while cloth diapers contribute to
air and water pollution and possible taxing of municipal water
and sewage systems.
Diapering methods must be evaluated in terms of resource use,
pollution and solid waste management to determine which poses
the most serious environmental problems for a given locale
long term.
In areas where land is plentiful but water is in short supply
disposable diapers may be the more environmentally responsible
choice. In areas experiencing solid waste problems and decreasing
landfills, but have adequate water supplies, cloth diapers
or a combination of cloth and disposables may be the most
environmentally responsible choice.
Health
Other
health issues impact on the diaper question. Diaper rash is
related to excess skin wetness. While disposables draw moisture
away from the skin and retain it in a chemical powder that
forms a gel in contact with liquid, critics suggest that cloth
diapers are changed more often and therefore are more likely
to prevent diaper rash. Studies show that super absorbent
disposables, perform best in reducing skin wetness. Cloth
diapers provide the next best amount of protection and regular
disposables provide the least (8). Frequent diaper changes
and attention to hygiene are the most critical practices in
dealing with diaper rash problems.
Most day care settings require children to wear disposable
diapers for reasons of convenience as well as for hygiene.
Studies show that children in group day care situations experience
more frequent diarrhea than children cared for at home or
individually (10). A recent study demonstrated that diaper
leakage and resulting contamination of the day care setting
is greater with cloth diapers and plastic pants, than with
super absorbent disposable diapers (11).
No comparison data is reported for regular disposables that
are less expensive and more commonly used than the super absorbent
varieties.
Economics
Economics
and time management impact more directly on families when
deciding to use cloth or disposable diapers. Disposables cost
approximately $50 per month, estimating 5 to 7 changes per
day. The amount varies depending on the age of the child.
Infants will have a greater number of changes and toddlers
a fewer number of changes. An initial one-time investment
for cloth diapers, including plastic pants and diaper pail,
is about $80. Home laundry costs including depreciation of
equipment is estimated at $1.35 per load (12). Washing one
load per day, laundry costs equal $40.37 per month. Commercial
diaper services with weekly delivery and pick-up of soiled
diapers average $10 to $15 per week or $40 to $60 per month.
Parents generally use more cloth diapers (9.7 per day) than
disposables (5.4 to 7.0 per day) due to more frequent changes
and double diapering, especially at night. Use of cloth diapers
costs considerably less than disposables in terms of actual
dollars expended by the family for acquisition; however, overall
cost of care including depreciation of home laundry equipment
reduces the actual cost difference.
In dual career or single parent families, especially, time
is precious. Laundering of diapers places additional demands
on home and child care activities. Along with more frequent
changes associated with cloth diapers, laundering becomes
a realistic consideration in making diapering decisions. Availability
of home laundry equipment further impacts on the decision.
Alternatives
Efforts
to reduce solid waste landfill problems to which disposable
diapers contribute are in progress. In one pilot effort (13),
disposable diaper component parts were collected, washed,
separated and recycled. The wood pulp was sanitized and used
in containers, wallboard and writing paper. At this writing,
however, recovery costs do not make the effort financially
feasible. Another pilot effort (14) includes separating the
plastic cover from the diapers, then shredding and composting
the soiled interior. Further research, currently being initiated,
is needed to fully use these approaches.
Questions regarding biodegradable diapers still need to be
resolved. Not only is speed of decomposition uncertain, but
also disposition of residue from the bacterial action on the
cornstarch product.
Some states have enacted legislation pending further study.
Others are considering legislation to ban use of non-biodegradable
disposable diapers. One state proposed banning the sale of
all disposable diapers, but did not pass the resolution. Currently,
no related legislation is pending in Ohio.
Personal
Decision
Which
diaper to use is a personal decision for Ohio parents. No
evidence exists that one method is clearly superior in terms
of impact on health, environment, and economic issues. Personal
values and needs, both for the child and the parents, must
be considered. Geographic area and environmental concerns
specific to that area including water supply, water and air
pollution, and solid waste disposal all impact on the situation.
Biodegradable diapers and recycling or composting of disposable
diapers may offer potential over the long term. Combining
diapering methods, with cloth for home and disposable away
from home, is an alternative for individuals facing increasing
landfill costs in their areas.
Overall health and environmental issues, including resource
use and pollution as well as solid waste management and its
implications, are not fully understood. Knowledgeable decisions
made based on the issues and their long term impact are important.
Parents play many roles in determining the future their children
will face. Decisions made regarding the environment and long
term impact is one of them. Learning about all aspects of
the situation and making knowledgeable decisions is a first
step.
A review of issues presented in this publication is provided
below to help consumers make their evaluations concerning
diapering needs.
| Issues
| Disposables
| Cloth
|
Environmental
Impact
|
- Consumes
both renewable and non-renewable resources in production
- Increased
cost for solid waste management
- Problem
where landfill concerns exist
|
- Reusable/Recyclable
- Increased
water and energy usage for laundry
- Increased
water and air pollution from laundry
- Problem
where water availability/ and air pollution concerns
exist
|
Health
and Safety
|
- Super
absorbents reduce diaper rash better than regular
disposables
- Diaper
leakage/contamination reduced with super absorbents
- Required
in some day care settings
- Potential
for leachate from landfills
|
- Diaper
rash reduced with frequent changes
- Increased
diaper leakage/contamination
- Municipal
sewage system handles solid waste
- No
landfill problems/contamination
|
Cost
and Convenience
|
- More
convenient
- Higher
purchase cost
|
- Less
convenient
- Low
purchase cost
- Time
and money cost for laundering
|
References
1)
Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States:
1990 Update. (1990). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA 530 SW-90-042. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office.
2) Lehrburger, C. (1988). Diapers in the Waste Stream: A Review
of Waste Management and Public Issues, P. O. Box 580, Sheffield,
MA.
3) Rathje, W. L. (1989). "Rubbish" The Atlantic
Monthly, 264 (6), 99-109.
4) Hollis, R. W. (1989). "The ethics of diapering";
Mothering (Fall), 29.
5) Little, A. D. Disposable Versus Reusable (Cloth) Diapers:
Environmental, Health and Economic Considerations. Cambridge,
MA: Arthur D. Little, Inc.
6) Lyman, F. (1990) "Diaper hype" Garbage: the Practical
Journal for the Environment, 2 (1), 36-40.
7) Clark. G.S., et. al. (1974). Incidence of viral infections
among waste collection workers. Institute of Environmental
Health, Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati Medical Center.
8) Energy and Environmental Profile Analysis of Children's
Disposable and Cloth Diapers. (1990). Prairie Village, KS:
Franklin Associates, Ltd.
9) Dallas, M. J. and Wilson, P. A. (1989). "Diaper performance:
maintenance of healthy skin" Proceedings: Association
of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing Annual Meeting,
Atlanta, GA.
10) Bartlett, L. K., Moore, M., Gary, W., et. al. (1985).
"Diarrhea illness among infants and toddlers in daycare
centers" Journal of Pediatrics (107), 495.
11) Berg, R. W. (1990). The effect of diaper type on the potential
for fecal contamination in group daycare settings. The Procter
and Gamble Company, Cincinnati, OH.
12) Stone, J. (1990). Groundwater quality: the diaper dilemma.
Iowa Cooperative Extension Service Publication No. Pm-1401,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA.
13) Joseph, L. E. (1990). "The Bottom Line on Disposables"
The New York Times Magazine (September 23), 26 ff.
14) King, L. W. (1990). A Study of Municipal Solid Waste Composting
on the Impact of Paper Diapers. The Procter and Gamble Company,
Cincinnati, OH.
All educational programs conducted by Ohio State University
Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory
basis without regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual
orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability or Vietnam-era
veteran status.
Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and
Director, OSU Extension.
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